PRIVATE RELIGION AS RESISTANCE IN ANNA SEGHERS’ <i>DER PROZESS DER JEANNE D'ARC ZU ROUEN 1431</i> (1937) AND BERTOLT BRECHT'S 1952 STAGE ADAPTATION

This article will examine the representation of religion in Anna Seghers’ radio play Der Prozess der Jeanne d'Arc zu Rouen 1431 (1937) and Bertolt Brecht's subsequent adaptation this text for stage (1952). While religiosity is central to identity medieval heroine, Seghers chooses communicate feature modern audiences a ‘lacunary’ way that sees refusing elaborate on details her belief throughout play. The protagonist's faith creates distance from contemporary listeners spectators as well characters within text, but when absolute commitment private results Jeanne's execution, moves people at large rebel against their oppressors. Thus emerges figure political resistance who draws bring about social change. In Brecht, voices move withstand oppressive forces are revealed be those rather than an expression divine. For twentieth-century relevance characteristic religiosity, depicted differently by each author, lies transformation which it can inspire both outside it. Dieser Artikel untersucht die Darstellung von Religion Hörspiel sowie Brechts Bühnenbearbeitung dieses Textes 1952. Religiosität ist ein zentraler Bestandteil Identität mittelalterlichen Heldin; vermittelt Charakteristikum modernes Publikum auf eine Art und Weise, Leerstellen gekennzeichnet ist, da ihren Vernehmern konkrete Details ihres Glaubens vorenthält. Glaube Protagonistin schafft Distanz sowohl Bezug zeitgenössische Hörer Zuschauer als auch gegenüber den Figuren im Text. Als Jeannes bedingungsloses Festhalten ihrem persönlichen Glauben jedoch ihrer Hinrichtung resultiert, inspiriert dies das Volk zur Rebellion gegen Unterdrücker. So konstruiert Figur des politischen Widerstandes, deren privater sozialer Veränderung führt. Brecht hingegen stellt Stimmen, welche zum Widerstand Machthabenden bewegen, Stimmen Volkes anstatt Ausdruck göttlicher Macht dar. Für besteht Relevanz eigenen zwanzigsten Jahrhundert darin, dass letztere Text darüber hinaus politische Transformation bewirken kann. examines Set fifteenth century, offers peculiar example what Daniel Weidner has called ‘cultural afterlife religion’1 characterises German writing first half despite ongoing process secularisation since Middle Ages.2 was tried heretic burnt stake she refused give up personal belief, presents two issues: per se, is, intradiegetically textual framework setting, presentation audience. Within between learned interrogators seeking stamp out challenge conventional religion, common sceptical face extreme conviction. It however, resulting French English Thus, To audiences, communication experience likewise characterised faith, borrow phrase Charles Taylor, which, while deprives opportunity witness expansion self so many modernist writers’ engagement with functions effectively strategy preserve possibility option age God only one choices.3 later version quite different respect: even transcendence denied unequivocally divine, thus negating veracity religious experience. actions inspire, represented narrative. Such significance had long been part tradition depictions d'Arc; focus trial, primarily concerned matters constitutes relatively new approach. Its fifteenth-century setting notwithstanding, story famous echoes key themes German-language literature dealing include challenging doctrine, showcasing concerns creating community.4 hailed Orthodox Jewish family grew cultural environment steeped Catholicism. Born Netty Reiling Mainz 1900, officially left community 1932, believing ‘that Communism continue complete mission Judaism Christianity’.5 As writer, remained interested Christianity career.6 Christian motifs allusions important role much work, example, anti-fascist novel Das siebte Kreuz; view, ‘christliche Lehre mit Substanz innerer Freiheit’7 possessed general validity. Having joined Communist party 1928, Germany Paris 1933; subsequently escaped Mexico did not return until 1947. during time Paris, most likely 1933 1936, wrote trial mass medium radio. broadcast Flemish Radio 1937; July same year, published edition Moscow-based journal Internatsionalnaya Literatura (International Literature). based transcripts were available Latin re-translated version.8 addition, referred Anatole France's entirely historical biography La Vie de (1908),9 significantly influenced Carl Theodor Dreyer's silent film, Passion (1928). Carefully following existing records, condensed several hundred transcript pages into fifty-five minutes, inserting additional dialogue exchanges adding commoners entry execution.10 born peasant Domrémy North-East France c. 1412. She reported receiving visions Archangel Michael Saints Margaret Catherine instructing support VII, dauphin France, aid him liberating domination Hundred Years’ War.11 VII sent Orleans relief mission; military success his coronation, captured Burgundian soldiers, handed over sum money Rouen, seat occupation government. found guilty heresy because insistence visions, regarded communing bypassing church authorities, also account cross-dressing.12 nineteen, before being rehabilitated declared martyr Pope Callixtus III twenty-five years later; 1909 saw beatification, canonisation took place 1920. Ever Christine Pisan's literary testimony, Le Ditié Jehanne d'Arc, composed lifetime, subject diverse representations languages literatures. A whose eminently suited reworked adaptability related least nascent concept nation state inscribed person, frequently supersedes makes persona open appropriation. Friedrich Schiller's Die Jungfrau Orléans (1801) marked notable appearance culture, popularising symbol people's armed fight its foreign oppressors, 1920 encouraged filmic incarnations twentieth century. narrative mobilised drive occupying force own country resonates obvious way. seen reflect fascist dictatorship Spain,13 mirroring hope kind National Socialist Germany. mentioned above, fight, reflects event, namely infamous Stalinist show trials directed ‘Trotskyists’ Moscow ‘Great Purge’ 1936. Although Seghers, card-carrying Communist, speak openly trials, they clear point reference illegitimate socialists Germany.14 But authoritarian regimes apt expressing activism, remains crucial text. Her transmitted ‘Stimmen’15 constitute experience, these inner conflict established authorities. Johanna, Seghers,16 condemned direct relationship God, dispenses mediation powers, other words, Church pope, cardinals, bishops priests. interrogation aims forcing renounce ‘aberrant’ beliefs; unless reveals precise nature voices, excommunicated. Johanna's vision, access poses Catholic prepared tolerate heterodoxy. category interiority, evidence something ‘unangreifbar […] unverletzbar’ ‘im Innersten’ person external powers cannot touch, articulated Kreuz.17 From beginning, emphasis captivity physical restraint contrast ability assert mental spiritual freedom, latter culminating eventually facing death bid determine fate, may modernity.18 deploys such authority represent resistance, deliberately retains emphasises interest dimension underscored extent inspired film Looking back 1968 origins Prozess, stated: ‘Ich war damals sehr beeindruckt dem Stummfilm, Dreyer über Prozeß gemacht hat, Falconetti. Film sicher einer besten Filme damaligen Zeit’.19 1965 publication ‘Hörspiel’ publishing house Reclam Leipzig that, collated consultation author herself, included number still images film.20 derived majority intertitles transcript. He explained he material ‘in questioning [Jeanne] went through trial’.21 director himself ‘a hymn triumph soul life’,22 ‘realised mysticism’,23 it, genuine, pitted institutionalised Christianity. situation – War hardly mentioned. Far removed image shining warrior (Renée Falconetti) suffering, privileging lingering shots pained expressions explanations faith. Rather comprehending her, suggests impossibility understanding anyone ‘at last extremities suffering’,24 awakening audience homo religiosus.25 Yet depicting ultimately unwavering death, ‘turns witnesses or congregants extraordinary event’,26 argued do just listeners. starts folk scene, members ‘Volk’ discuss ‘das Mädel’ (S, p. 7), echoing traditional attribute ‘pucelle’, led trial. Spectators comment how ‘klein dünn’ 10) ‘Zwirnsfädchen’ (ibid.) struggling heavy chains bind speaker astonished ran away little thread girl (ibid.). introduction sets Johanna diminutive appears possess strength odds appearance. followed immediately mention apparitions allegedly experienced (‘Sie soll Erscheinungen haben’, ibid.; my emphasis). speakers question whether claim fact true (‘ob wahr ist?’, ibid.); thus, perspective scepticism vis-à-vis although stops short having refer witch, term contained accusation picked (see below).27 When explain ‘gelehrte[…] Herren dort oben’ examining issue, establishes further hand, men ‘dort other. One observer wonders why placed herself would seem does stand chance gender, class, education outnumbered (‘so viele gelehrte Herren’, interlocutor comments need act view occupation, think justifies ‘verrückte[…] Einfälle’ 11), ‘[i]n Männerkleidern vor Soldaten herzurennen’ (ibid.), casting protagonist abnormal due transgression gender conventions. Finally, claims have ordered lead army ‘Heimatland’ must carried special exiled Seghers. At point, presence alienating manifestation moderated notion patriotism, establishing link politics throughout. Subsequently, interrogated Bishop Cauchon ‘43 Beisitzer, edle Doktoren’ 14). request allowed attend Mass start grounds severity accusation, refuses take off masculine clothing. very ‘gatekeepers’ able bar rituals organised granted condition conformity. bishop states heretical described ‘glaubensverletzend’ 15), become known all Christendom brought court held accountable. eyes ecclesiastical world (‘Aller Augen sind uns gerichtet. Vom Konzil Basel, Rom, allen Kanzleien Europas’, S, 39) means made reaffirm institution. judge jury hand defendant cross purposes. insists want talk ‘[ü]ber [ihre] Offenbarungen’ 15). announces intention keep revelations whatever consequences: ‘da könnt ihr mir ruhig Kopf abhauen, erfahren werdet doch nichts’ privacy inquisitors’ suggestion should reveal truth ‘zur Erleichterung deines Gewissens’ presuming know mind better herself. swears tell Glaubenssachen’ 18), paying mere lip service interrogators. truth, disclose (‘Antworten werde ich, ich will’, 22; testifies ‘Stimme’ came thirteen: coincided 26), emphasising yet again connection circumstances. Beaupère, interrogator, attempts find 34), address silenced consequence (‘Damit zieht nicht Zunge’, ibid.). keeps conversation Saint (‘sonst verrate nichts’, 35), suppressing any concrete make appear childish ridiculous. exerts control exchange guards pp. 59–60). Fontaine informs ‘[u]nter Beisitzern manche Männer, dein Bestes wollen, verstehst du?’ 50), implying best her. becomes apparent tension pre-modern ideas self. On acting response God's unable might Taylor ‘porous’ age, manifestations shape angels, spirits, etc. simultaneously outwardly completely internalised self, unlike ‘buffered’ modernity.28 stance coupled ‘naïve’ lack analysis conditions one's belief. structures Church, embody idea rejection desire attain agency autonomy. told answers ‘furchtlos’ 35) ‘kühn’ 54), declares 55–6), once invoking unmediated God. By contrast, exhorts subordinate (‘wir ermahnen dich streng mitleidig: du unseren getan hast, unterwirf endlich Kirche’, 62; first-person plural pronoun ‘unseren’ shares brethren, serves exclude official others. already subordinated whom regards distinct 63). explains infallible merely replies jetzt überhaupt nichts mehr antworten’ divulge information. ‘heimgehen’ ‘zu meiner Mutter zurück’ referring biological mother, men, ‘mother’ usages ‘Mutter’, taking meanings used speakers, foreground more incommunicability ostensibly confession. formal announced, ‘Heil’ 71), preservation body soul, ‘Belehrung’ 70). announcement, implies naïve ill-informed therefore valid, met mockery Johanna. Holding construed ‘Hochmut’ conviction knows ‘unsere[n] Glauben’ ‘wir Doktoren Gelehrte’ (ibid.; emphasis), suggesting theologians, learning, prerequisite determining truthfulness Conversely, expresses distrust towards written word, indicative opponents’ erudition, recordings (‘Ich weiß ja nicht, Protokolle hineinflickt’, 74; ‘Günstiges laßt aufschreiben’, 75). Châtillon then goes far accuse fabricating (‘erlogen’, 78): deem pure claiming superior knowledge extends viewpoint. calmly neither vanity nor antworte euch mehr’, ibid.), insisting subjective Various assessors declare reformer theologian Jan Hus, ‘[d]as Mädel ahnungslos’ 83), refusal seriously education; ‘Einfalt’, reports 139). Despite simplicity mind, Faculty twelve counts schismatic.29 stake, implores recant: ‘Wenn dir wirklich erschienen sind, teure Schwester, füge Meinung Universität alle deine Einbildung Unsinn erklärt hat’, 86; questions reality experiences them invalid learning dogma. initially resistant, yet, faced threat excommunication 91), recants sign ‘Widerruf’ illiteracy, directions, across paper order create signature. scene captures poignant theologians illiterate manifests itself realm separate discourse. life-long imprisonment wear women's clothes. accused transgressed stipulations 99), regains earlier resolve; directions describe as: ‘plötzlich ganz verändert, kühn wie anfangs’ recanted 102), gap clergy layperson comes original announcing prefers ‘jetzt einmal sterben langsam [ihren, i.e. opponents’] Händen’ When, impending Jean Massieu promised liberated prison 103), happen, now free fear power inserts protocols words: ‘Bin befreit Todesangst? Bin Angst Machthabern?’ proposing Anthony Waine puts ‘the metaphysics harnessed confront vanquish forms persecution’.30 anti-religious Marxist/Leninist thought centres critique hinders change here now, allows defy captors afterlife, compels English: messianic bringing life.31 words ‘Heiliger Michael!’ 107), leaves encountering saint moment transcendent inaccessible intra- extradiegetic alike. ends remorse executioner, ‘Ich, hätte es wissen müssen!’ 110), suddenly recognises complicit killing innocent saint.32 remaining sentences suggest rebellion follow ending after demise, depicts rising (and struck down occupiers). Nevertheless, stills final sequence conclude close-up pointing people. refusal, potent places heroine lives saints relating figures literature, Kafka's ‘Hungerkünstler’. sum, drawn experiential withholding elaboration. notably omits specific ‘Schuldartikel’ (for listed appendix 119). vision right commune directly, concealed intradiegetic stems decision suppress strategic necessity, transgress boundaries dogma decrees permissible. Further, unwillingness understood context where default investigation human subjectivity ‘reality’ modernity occur.33 extent, character, authenticity objective analysis, mystery ex negativo. this, broad representing ages, according incommunicable expressed negation immanent world.34 However, lacunary beyond foregrounds uncomplicated, untroubled ties framework, though characteristic.35 negativo intended resonate enabling fill blank content own, or, failing prevent rejecting heroine's evaluation ‘implausible’ recognise there things always remain understanding. meant provide still, centre others willingness act, character's otherness interrogators, sympathy